CHAPTER 25
NAVAL SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
In 1949, the Government invited Dr JE Keyston of the British Royal Naval Scientific Service to advise on the establishment of a scientific organisation to assist the Navy. In his report on "The Requirements of the Indian Navy for Scientific Assistance", he recommended the setting of an Underwater Science Establishment and a Dockyard Laboratory. He also recommended the immediate appointment of a Chief Scientific Officer at Naval Headquarters. The Government accepted these recommendations
The services were obtained on loan for a period of two years of Dr GE Gale, a Principal Chief Scientific Officer of the Royal Naval Scientific Service. He took over as Scientific Adviser (Navy) in March 1951. Ex officio, he was also the Chief Scientific Officer (Navy) in the Defence Science Organisation of the Ministry of Defence. Three major thrust area were identified: the INPL, the NCML and the indigeneous production and inspection of Naval Stores. Both laboratories were to function directly under the Naval Research Cell in Naval Headquarters. An Indian scientist was appointed to work alongside Dr Gale and take over from him when he left.
The INPL
A Physical laboratory was set up on Willingdon Island in Cochin to deal with the scientific aspect of undersea warfare including submarine detection, minesweeping, degaussing and harbour defence. The first priority was to be given to work on degaussing, ship noise and magnetic sweeping, development of detector loops, study of thermoclines (bathythermograph data), underwater acoustics, indigeneous production of sonar oscillators and fire control equipment. Oceanographical investigations were also planned.
In March 1952, the Indian Naval Physical Laboratory(INPL) was established in the wartime barracks of one of the Training Schools of INS Venduruthy in Cochin.
The NCML
The Naval Chemical and Metallurgical Laboratory was established in Bombay Dockyard. The laboratory was intended to undertake R & D work related to all materials used in the Navy, other than explosive or foodstuff. The first priority was to be investigations in connection with hull, non-ferrous and boiler corrosion, antifouling composition and methods of hull protection. In due course, the laboratory would be equipped to carry out the mechanical testing of metals, gamma radiography and spectrographic analysis.
By end 1952, an old building in the Dockyard had been converted into a laboratory and a large raft had been constructed to be moored in Bombay Harbour for conducting experiments on anti-fouling and protective compositions for underwater hulls.
The Scientific Aspects of the Indigeneous Production of Naval Stores
The first priority was how to make the technical inspection of naval stores more effective and how to attain industrial standardistation. The Scientific Adviser (Navy) was the convenor of the Naval Stores Production Committee at NHQ and his staff represented NHQ on nearly twenty committees, sub committees and panels of the Indian Standards Institution.
Inter-service activity was planned in the fields of:
(a) Radar Research : In due course, this culminated in the establishment of the Electronics Research and Development Establishment (LRDE) in Bangalore.
(b) Physiological Research : To clarify future lines of research, an extensive study was carried out in 1952 of habitability conditions on board naval ships, obtaining data on personnel working under heat stress in boiler rooms and engine rooms, physiological stress experienced by divers and the question of survival rations.
1952-1953
In their early years, both INPL and NCML functioned as in-house laboratories for the Navy, solving day to day technical problems and undertaking studies and investigations as required by the Navy. INPL was controlled by the Commodore in Charge Cochin and obtained its funds from the naval budget.
1954-1964
Between 1954 and 1964 there was considerable progress in the activities of both the laboratories as well as productive interactions with the National Laboratories.
The National Physical Laboratory helped in the development of barium titanate for sonar transducers. The Institute of Science Bombay helped in the work of fouling and marine borers. The Indian Institute of Science Bangalore helped in setting an anechoic tank in Cochin.
During this period, responsibilities for the production and inspection of stores, advice regarding materials for naval construction and matters regarding Gunnery and TAS matters were transferred to new Directorates established at NHQ. The Naval Applied Psychology Research Unit (NPRU) was started at Cochin for job analysis and optimal categorisation of seaman sailors.
Between 1954 and 1964, the INPL had:
(a) Developed a sonar range recorder, an electronic sea wave recorder, minesweeper degaussing equipment, a portable magnetometer for magnetic survey, a wave current meter for measuring water currents, underwater sound transducers, underwater sound telephony, mine firing circuits, tables for calculating sonar ranges.
(b) Completed studies of fluctuation of underwater sound, collation of bathythermograms and origin of micro-seisms, design of hydrophones and active filters, linear arrays, directional sonobuoys.
(c) A scientist visited Singapore to study the Portable Degaussing Range and observe the degaussing of several minesweepers.
Between 1954 and 1964, the NCML had:
(a) Developed catholic protection for ships hulls, anti fouling paint, spectrographic analysis of contaminants in lubricants, solventless epoxy coating for prevention of excessive corrosion taking place at the stern areas of ships.
(b) Completed studies of marine fouling organisms in Bombay Harbour, laboratory formulation of superior anti corrosive and anti fouling paints, corrosion rates of metals and alloys in seawater in Bombay and Cochin harbour, turbine lubricating oils.
The Scientific Adviser (Navy)'s Research Cell at NHQ was renamed as the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Their theoretical studies covered radar clutter, super refraction, diffraction of sound in underwater shadow zones and inventory control problems.
In 1958, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) was formed by amalgamating all laboratories and scientific establishments working in the Defence Science Organisation. The two Naval Laboratories were brought under DRDO.
By 1965, Naval R & D was being carried out in three basic fields:
(a) The Naval Research Cell of the Defence Science Laboratory in Delhi, was involved in the theoretical study of radar clutter, super refraction, theory of search etc.
(b) The INPL Cochin was researching problems connected with oceanography, micro-seisms, accoustics etc. Scientists from INPL were participating in all oceanographic research cruises.
(c) The NCML Bombay was doing research on hull corrosion of ships, doing structural examination of the Dockyard's steel castings and investigating fatigue failures of ships machinery.
HIGHLIGHTS OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS 1965 TO 1975
THE INPL/NPOL
In 1969, the INPL's name was changed to Naval Physical and Oceanography Laboratory, NPOL. Its main functions were :-
(a) R & D in the fields of Physics and Oceanography, with special reference to underwater detection and underwater weapons.
(b) To carry out modifications to naval equipment to suit local conditions and to establish their indigenous manufacture.
By 1973, the NPOL's charter of duties had expanded to:-
(a) Development of underwater submarine detection systems like sonar, sonobuoys, explosive echo ranging, etc.
(b) Underwater torpedo decoys
(c) Development of anti submarine training aids and simulators.
(d) Oceanographic studies and design and development of oceanographic equipment.
(e) Underwater accoustic propagation studies.
(f) Scientific support to ships and establishments at Cochin.
The NPOL's achievements from 1965 to 1975 were as follows:-
(a) Development of a passive non-directional sonobuoy, a prototype transmitter pressure transducer for pressure mines, diver held sonar for detection of metal objects submerged in mud, corner reflectors for use with towed targets for surface gunnery firings, injectors of echoes similar to a submarine in ship borne sonar systems, modified search plans for use against submarines, proton precession magnetometers to measure magnetic anomaly, pneumatic and electronic wave recorders for collecting wave and swell data in coastal areas.
(b) Studies on ASW aircraft and submarine force for specific tasks, task forces for anti smuggling measures, escort forces for protection of convoys.
THE NCML
The NCML's main functions became:-
(a) R & D in the fields of marine corrosion, marine paints, marine biology and metallurgy.
(b) To investigate service failure of equipment and stores on board ships and suggest remedial measures.
(c) To conduct acceptance testing of underwater ship bottom compositions, metals, alloys, fuels, lubricants and general chemicals and assist in their indigenous development.
(d) To provide scientific support to the Naval Dockyard and the Fleet.
The NCML's main achievements from 1965 to 1975 were as follows:-
Development of shop primer for ship plates, compositions for internal cleaning of boilers, anti-skid paint for VIKRANT's flight deck, vinyl based underwater paints to replace conventional paints so as to increase the period between dockings.
NSTL
In 1968, it became clear to the Navy and to the DRDO that NPOL and NCML could not meet the Navy's entire requirements and that there was need to create a third major laboratory at Visakhapatnam called the Naval Science and Technology Laboratory, NSTL. Government sanction issued in Feb 69.
NSTL came into existence on 20 Aug 1969 and initially started functioning in the POL Lubricants store of the Naval Dockyard. In September 1969, it shifted into a two room war barrack at Andhra University.
The R & D mandate assigned to the Laboratory at the time of its creation was:
(a) Underwater detection equipment (including equipment/sets deployed both for detection and attack), mines, torpedoes and other ship/submarine based under water weapons, counter measures against all types of underwater attack including those against magnetic, accoustic and pressure type of mines.
(b) Marine biology, stores, materials and alloys for marine use, corrosion and associated problems.
(c) Marine and electrical engineering problems pertaining to the Navy, studies on Hydrodynamics and Hydroballistics, cavitation etc with a view to aid the design of ships, submarines, propellors, hydrofoil boats, underwater missiles etc.
(d) Other important R & D work of particular interest to Navy.
In order to carry out work in the above fields, the Laboratory was originally organised into three divisions : Underwater Weapons, Materials and Marine Biology, and Engineering.
Establishing Equivalents for Russian Oils and Lubricants
The one year guarantee clause for the Russian acquisitions was valid subject to the stipulation that only specified oils and lubricants should have been used. After the Russian ships and submarines started arriving from 1968 onwards, it became increasingly clear that:
(a) Perpetual dependance on Russian oils and lubricants was impractical.
(b) Indigenous equivalents needed to be identified and validated by the Russian side for safe exploitation under Indian tropical conditions.
NSTL's priority task from 1969 onwards became the identification of international/Indian equivalents for Russian oils and lubricants.
Initial R & D Studies:
R & D work also started in the following areas:
(a) Material science and marine biology studies with emphasis on corrosion studies, industrial pollutants and their effect on underwater corrosion, chemical cleaning of exhaust systems and toxic gases in submarines and their elimination.
(b) Studies on the natural deterioration of timber in sea water, rearing of barnacles, toxicants and their inhibition on marine growth and development of dual purpose systems for inhibition of corrosion and fouling.
In 1972, the initial charter of duties was modified:
(a) Underwater detection studies were deleted since these were already being carried out by NPOL.
(b) The Material and Marine Biology division was shifted to the NCML, Bombay. However, in view of the importance of establishing indigenous equivalents for Russian the oils and lubricants, a full fledged laboratory was established under the direct control of the Naval Dockyard at Visakhapatnam. In subsequent years, this laboratory grew into a laboratory of repute and met the Navy's requirements in the field of material sciences and studies on vibration in ships etc.
In 1973, the NSTL's charter was revised again and became:-
(a) Underwater weapons
(b) Underwater test ranges
(c) Noise and vibration studies
(d) Studies on underwater explosion
(e) Electrical and mechanical machinery
(f) Other major R & D problems pertaining to the Navy. The Laboratory was equipped with facilities for evaluation of data required for warship design, hydro dynamic and hydro ballistic studies and hydrofoils.
(g) Study on performance of wear of marine propulsion engines under fuels and lubricants of different specifications.
(h) Scientific support to the Eastern Naval Command.
The major studies carried out by the NSTL between 1969 and 1975 were as follows:-
NOISE RANGING AND SELF NOISE MEASUREMENT STUDIES
The need had increasingly been felt to undertake noise ranging of the newly inducted ships and submarines. The aim was to measure their underwater radiated noise, pinpoint the sources of this noise and reduce the level so as to minimise the probability of their detection by enemy sonars. Likewise, the self noise level of vessels also needed to be measured and reduced so as to enhance the performance of own sonars. Since no facilities existed in the country for noise ranging and self-noise measurements, NSTL took up a project in 1970 to design and develop the instrumentation system to carry out noise measurements and analyse the self noise of ships.
Noise ranging, self-noise measurements and airborne noise measurements were carried out on the Petyas, the Leanders and the earlier Brahmaputra class frigates:
(a) The airborne noise measurements gave an indication of the habitability conditions in ships compartments and accordingly, noise-dosage recommendations were given.
(b) The radiated noise and self noise measurements were recorded and analysed and recommendations made to improve maintenance routines and machinery operating regimes and to adopt noise reduction techniques.
(c) Performance evaluations were undertaken of noise reduction systems like the Leander's Agouti system and the Brahmaputra Class controlled Pitch Propellors(CPP).
(d) A committee was appointed to recommend the site for a permanent noise range.
VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS OF MACHINERY ON BOARD SHIPS
The vibration signatures of Petyas and Leanders were measured. Analysis of these measurements enabled:
(a) Preparation of a data bank of base-line vibration signatures.
(b) Formulation of criteria for acceptance of machinery on new construction ships.
(c) Life extensions for main propulsion gas turbines.
(d) Fault diagnosis on machinery having specific problems.
(e) Recording on the shop floor of base-line levels of new machinery.
(f) Initiation of techniques for condition monitoring of machinery.
These studies helped not only to pin-point faults but also to assess the health of machinery and thereby forestall failures. This project became a fore-runner to later vibration measurement studies.
DEGAUSSING RANGE FOR MINE SWEEPERS
All the instrumentation and structural frame-work for the minesweeper degaussing range was designed and developed indigenously. The range was installed off Middle Ground at Bombay and a trial ship, INS KAKINADA, was ranged. However, due to ocean engineering problems and shortcomings in underwater cable technology, the structure of the range got damaged and water ingressed into the cable connections. The project yielded important lessons for the setting up of future DG ranges and the DG ranging of ships.
UNDERWATER SHOCK STUDIES
The protection of the hulls of own ships and submarines against enemy underwater weapons and the effectiveness of own underwater weapons against the hulls of enemy ships and submarines require knowledge of underwater explosions and their damage potential. Being sensitive and classified, no data was available. NSTL took up this study in 1972.
The laboratory study established the experimental facilities to create scaled explosions, the instrumentation to record and analyse shock data and understand the damage likely to be caused to hulls, machinery and equipment by underwater shock propagation. This study laid the foundation for establishing the extensive facilities for subsequent studies.
IMPROVEMENTS TO TORPEDOES
In the early 1970's, neither expertise nor infrastructure was available either to redesign or develop torpedoes. NSTL concentrated therefore on improving the capability of the existing British MK 44 and Russian torpedoes.
Initial effort focussed on developing the instrumentation for testing critical parameters. To test the external pressure, NSTL fabricated an autoclave chamber to test sub-systems/shells upto 60 kg/cm sq.
Projects successfully completed included:
(a) Increasing torpedo range by introducing additional bottles.
(b) Substituting an oil hydraulic system in place of the pneumatic system.
(c) the development of indigenous torpedo batteries. To test these indigenous batteries, a Drag Disc test facility was set up to test a torpedo in the static condition. This facility proved invaluable for testing batteries and contra-rotating motors.
A breakthrough was achieved by successfully instrumenting a torpedo for evaluating the torpedo decoy developed by the NPOL, Cochin. The towed decoy was a "Controllable Noise Maker"(CNM). To determine its effectiveness to seduce a torpedo, it was necessary to record the torpedo's underwater track. NSTL scientists designed a digital recorder which optically picked off the track information from the torpedo's course-keeping gyro, converting it into digital data and recording it on a tape recorder. The data, when played back, enabled a complete evaluation, not only of the torpedo but also of the CNM. With this track recorder, it became possible to understand all aspects of torpedo dynamics and the performance parameters of torpedo sub-systems.
This marked the beginning of a multipronged-multidisciplinary approach. Artificial targets were successfully developed to evaluate torpedo firing practices.
What started in 1973 as a project to develop a simple track recorder for recording a torpedo's track eventually enabled scientists to confidently take up projects to enhance the capability of torpedoes in naval inventory.
GENERAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
In 1969, the Director of Scientific Research (Navy) was redesignated as the Scientific Adviser to the CNS. The technical and administrative control of NPOL and NCML was transferred to the newly appointed Director of Naval Science and Technology, DNST, in DRDO.
With the creation of DRDO in 1958, the interaction with other laboratories synergised and several projects were successfully completed.
| Year | Project |
| 1968 | (a) Development of Day and Night Distress Signal. |
| (b) Development of 6 inch gun shells for practice firing, which on explosion threw up coloured splashes. | |
| (c) Maintenance particulars for Russian armaments. | |
| (d) Development of reduced charge propellant for 4 inch guns. | |
| 1969 | (a) Temperature indicating lacquer to avoid "cook off" in rapid fire Russian guns |
| (b) Techniques for reconditioning radio proximity (VT) fuzes held in stock thereby extending the service life of large quantities of these expensive fuzes. | |
| (c) Modification of a proof cradle for fitting a 4.5" gun in a 4.7" gun mounting for use at the new VT fuze range at Balasore, thereby avoiding the import of a complete 4.5" gun and mounting. | |
| (d) Engineer‑in‑Chief's branch. Design and construction of a VT fuze range at Balasore with the assistance of DRDO laboratories. | |
| (e) Design and development of a naval VT fuze in coordination with DRDO Laboratories. | |
| 1970 | (a) Design and production of Russian 76.2 mm ammunition. |
| (b) Design and production Russian anti submarine rockets. | |
| (c) Design of chaff rockets and their launchers | |
| (d) Design of radio proximity VT fuzes for anti aircraft gun ammunition | |
| (e) Design of accoustic proximity fuzes for anti submarine rockets. | |
| 1973 | (a) Improved antenna design to provide high radiation effi.lm6 efficiency. |
| (b) Improved amplifiers to increase the range performance of radars. | |
| (c) A coal‑tar epoxy composition as protective coating for bilges of ships. | |
| (d) Rigid PVC piping for sea‑water on board ships was found to withstand mechanical deformation, degradation and thermal shocks within limits. The piping was recommended for use in small craft. | |
| (e) Indigenously developed anodes for cathodic protection to ships and submerged structures were found to give protection for a longer period than the imported zinc anodes. | |
| 1974 | (a) Anti‑cockroach lacquers/paints for use against cock.lm6 roaches in galleys, pantries and living spaces on board ships. User trials indicated that these lacquers/paints were very effective against cockroaches for six months. |
| (b) NCML developed a shop primer for application on the steel plates used for construction of ships. The composition gave satisfactory performance on ship hulls. | |
| (c) Aeromedical Cell, Bangalore developed: | |
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| 1975 | (a) The Defence Food Research Laboratory, Mysore developed. |
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| (b) The NCML Bombay developed. | |
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| (c) The Textile and Stores Research and Development Establishment, Kanpur developed waterproof smocks and trousers from indigenous materials. These were found suitable on board submarines. | |
| (d) The Defence Institute of Fire Research, New Delhi, developed indigenous foam liquid to replace the imported foam liquid. It was successfully tried out in a submarine. | |
| (e) The Research and Development Establishment (Engineers), Pune, designed a single‑compartment surface‑type recompression chamber for divers. The chamber could accommodate 8 men at a time and had a working pressure upto 100 psi. |
1975
By 1975, NHQ had formulated its long term requirements in the form of a Missile Plan, a Radar Plan, a Sonar Plan, and an EW Plan to enable these to be dovetailed wherever possible with the long term plans of the other services.
The ASW computer for the 5th and 6th Leanders and the development of on-board simulators were entrusted to the Department of Electronics.
By end 1975:
(a) Indigenous Sonobuoys, sonic ray plotters and expendable bathy theirographs (XBTs) were entering service.
(b) Trials of controllable noisemaker torpedo decoys and the modified Sonar 170 were in progress.
PROJECTS STARTED IN 1965-75 BUT COMPLETED AFTER 1975
| Operational Projects | Started | Completed |
| Indigenous Expendable Bathy Thermographs (XBT) | 1971 | 1977 |
| Diver Held Sonar | 1965 | 1976 |
| Towed Torpedo Decoy Controllable Noise Maker | 1965 | 1977 |
| Sonic Ray Plotter | 1969 | 1976 |
| Medium Range Sonar for Frigates | 1974 | 1977 |
| Pilot Production of Sonobuoys | 1967 | 1977 |
| Support for Naval Operations: | ||
| DG Range for Minesweepers | 1968 | 1977 |
| High Pressure Underwater Testing Equipment | 1969 | 1977 |
| Repair and Calibration of Magnetostrictive Transducers | 1970 | 1976 |
| Training Project | ||
| Echo Injector Procedure Teacher | 1967 | 1976 |
| Submarine Echo Classifier | 1967 | 1976 |
| Electronic Uniselector of ASTT Radar PPI Display | 1970 | 1976 |
| Ocean Studies | ||
| Reverberation and Propagation studies | 1972 | 1984 |
1953
Oceanographic research commenced in 1953 by :-
(a) Systematising the accumulation of bathythermograph data
(b) Survey ship INVESTIGATOR taking samples at depths as far down as 1000 fathoms.
(c) Naval ships taking naval scientific personnel and Andhra University personnel and students to sea on a number of oceanographical cruises.
In 1960, the flag ship of Soviet Oceanographic Research, the VITIAZ, visited Cochin. INPL scientists visited the ships' 13 laboratories and one scientist participated in an oceanographic cruise.
1962
International Indian Ocean Expedition
In recognition of the importance of Oceanographic Research in the Indian Ocean, it was decided that the Indian Navy will take part as a major participant in the International Oceanographic Expedition in Indian Ocean scheduled for 1962-64.
The main tasks allocated to India within the framework of this expedition were:
(a) Participation by INS KISTNA, a frigate specially fitted for Oceanic Research to the extent of 6 months in each year in 1962 and 1963.
(b) Provide assistance for radio communication to the vessels taking part in this expedition in the Indian Ocean Area.
(c) Provide assistance with shore facilities to oceanographic vessels within Indian ports.
(d) Provide facilities in Naval Laboratories at Bombay and Cochin.
(e) Make available Naval Scientists for participation in research work both ashore and afloat.
(f) Provide assistance for the training of scientists as required for the expedition.
Indian responsibilities within the overall framework lay in the waters near the coast of India, both East and West, and intensive investigations on the continental shelf and super-jacent waters. The maximum limits of the area of Indian responsibility were the Arabian Sea above the Equator with 6 degrees longitude as the western boundary and the Sumatra Coast along with the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as the eastern boundary. Some cruises were made to south of the Equator up to 12 degrees south. Similarly, cruises were undertaken to the east coast of Africa where important oceanic currents originate and which have a bearing on the coastal circulation on the northwest coast of India.
The Indian programme included observations and calculations of energy flux between the ocean and the atmosphere. Studies were also to be made of sun, sky and atmospheric radiations; air pressure, temperature and humidity at deck level; surface temperature of the sun; near surface current; waves; swells; tide; rainfall; evaporation profiles of wet and dry bulbs and wind above sea surface.
India was represented in the expedition by four vessels:
(a) INS KISTNA. The ship was fitted out with the requisite scientific instruments and equipment to cope with the requirements of the various tasks allocated to India.
(b) RV VARUNA. She was the survey vessel of the Indo-Norwegian Fisheries Project, Kerala.
(c) Bangada. She was a fisheries vessel.
(d) Conch. She was a research vessel of the Kerala University.
A total of 20 ships from the following countries participated in the expedition:
Australia, France, India, Indonesia, Israel, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Pakistan, South Africa, Britain, Russia, Zanzibar and West Germany. The USA and Russia between them had the largest contingents of ships.
From these cruises, the Navy hoped to obtain:
(a) Up to date seasonal sonar charts of our seas.
(b) Data on sea/swell in the open ocean.
(c) Bottom contour charts of the ocean for submarine navigation.
In the 1962 cruise, valuable data was collected relating to the propagation of sound through sea water, measurement of tides, waves and currents, the morphology of the sea bed etc.
1963
KISTNA, commenced study cruises in accordance with the programme for the International Indian Ocean Expedition. Eleven cruises covering 251 stations were completed and oceanographic data collected at various depths.
1964
KISTNA participated in six oceanographic cruises. Ten submarine canyons were located on the east coast of India.
1965
KISTNA participated in six cruises for collecting hydrographic and bathymetric data. In 2 cruises, she collaborated with the German Research Vessel METEOR in seismic refraction experiments in the Gulfs of Cambay and Kutch.
1966
In 1966, the oceanographic data collected during the 1965 expedition was compiled. The data from the seismic surveys carried out by KISTNA and METEOR was processed.
The National Institute of Oceanography was established in 1966.
1972
A committee under the Scientific Adviser to the Defence Minister recommended the formation of a national body for oceanography. Thereafter the Department of Science and Technology was to prepare a paper for Cabinet approval. It took several years to sort out the details. Their proposal for the formation of an Ocean Science and Technology Agency eventually ended up being the present Department of Ocean Development in 1981.
1973
MONEX 73. In collaboration with Russia, the India Meteorological Department organised Monsoon Experiment 1973.
OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPEDITION DEC 73
A major step taken for the exploitation of the country's resources in the continental shelf was the commencement of the multi disciplinary Oceanographic Expedition in Dec 73. The institutions which took part in the expedition were:
(a) National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad.
(b) National Institute of Oceanography, Panaji.
(c) Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
(d) Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.
(e) Oil and Natural Gas Commission, Dehradun.
(f) Indian Meteorological Department, New Delhi.
(g) Atomic Energy Department, New Delhi.
(h) Gujarat Fisheries Department, Ahmedabad.
Naval Oceanographic Programme
Between Oct 73 and Jun 74, Survey Ship DARSHAK undertook an extensive oceanographic expedition from Goa to the Gulf of Oman, covering a coastal belt up to a distance of 200 miles offshore. Several hundred bethythermograph observations were obtained on a 15 mile grid supported by temperature, salinity and depth probes as well as reversing water bottle observations of the entire water column. This enabled construction of the sound velocity structure model of this area and provided basic data for planning future time-series studies of selected stations essential for the purposes of predicting the behaviour pattern of thermal layers.
Indian Ocean data received from the National Oceanographic Data Centre, Washington, as well as data held by the NIO, supplemented the Naval Oceanographic Programme. The data collected was processed by the Environmental Data Processing and Forecasting Cell in the Hydrographic Office at Dehradun and became available in 1975.
Oceanographic Equipment for Survey Ships
Naval Headquarters proposed to the Government the provision of oceanographic equipment for the two existing survey ships. This would help them in carrying out bathymetric, geological and geophysical surveys, measurement of ocean currents, the compilation of temperature, salinity and meteorological data, and a limited study of marine biology, all of which had deep operational implications.
1975
Oceanographic Forecasting
In 1975, Oceanographic forecasting was made the responsibility of the Meteorological officers in the Navy. To begin with, one meteorological officer was trained in th the basic principles of oceanographic forecasting and data processing.